Venus, Self-Liberated

Ok. I lied. I have at least one more conference inspired post to write. The enslavement panel had a paper by Gaia Gianni who is experimenting with Critical Fabulations and epigraphic traces of enslaved women in Rome. I had a number of side bar conversations with colleagues about this paper and the methodology. The biggest questions still in my mind are for whom are these narratives. Do they make us feel better? Why and how? Do we want to be made comfortable or uncomfortable? Why? I know I might enjoy writing these speculative fictions, but I also know they are not for me to write. I would also note that the application of critical fabulation to female enslaved persons of the ancient world has already been discussed by other scholars.

Kamen, Deborah, and Sarah Levin-Richardson. “Epigraphy and critical fabulation: imagining narratives of Greco-Roman sexual slavery.” Dynamic Epigraphy: New Approaches to Inscriptions (2022): 201-221.

What is “critical fabulation”, you ask. Well, it started here.

Saidiya Hartman’s Venus in Two Acts (2008).

Hartman is one of the great minds and literary scholars (artists) of the 21st century. We should be hesitant to trust our talents to walk the same path. We should also question whether it is possible or appropriate to apply a technique from the aftermath of the Atlantic slave trade (still very much shaping our present!) to the ancient material. Perhaps the most accessible way to get a sense of the Hartman’s approach and its impact is this 2020 New Yorker article.

The phrase ‘critical fabulations’ has now become a bit of a cultural and academic buzz word for everything from art exhibits to books about design. There is LOTS of results in the scholarly literature and lots of arguing over its limits and utility. I am just watching from the sidelines with some reservations but equally deep interest and curiosity.

So this is not a post using critical fabulation but rather about the name Venus and naming customs among US enslavers. One of my favorite databases is

And a project I’d v much like to do with students one day is analyse these reports of enslavers trying to recapture the self liberated to say something about when and why US enslavers used classically inspired names for those they claimed to own. Renaming, something also practices by Roman enslavers, is a critical means of control and articulation of natal alienation.

To this end, I decided to allow myself to read all the ads with Venus as an enslaved name. 17 Venuses set themselves free. And it is only in the rage of their former enslavers that we can know them.

RUN AWAY from the subscriber, about eight days past, A NEGROE WENCH, named Venus, speaks but little English, has many country marks on her face, and on one arm a white spot or (?) occasioned by a scald or burn of the fire. Whoever returns her to the owner in Savannah shall receive ten shillings and all reasonable charges. WILLIAM OLDS N.B. If harboured by any white person, thirty shillings will be given; she had on a white negroe cloth petticoat and an oznabrig jacket. [August 29, 1775. Georgia Gazette.]

Country marks is a reference her scarification as a beauty and/or ritual practice of many African peoples. This and the reference to her lack of English language, suggest she had recently endured transport and there is no particular chance Venus was her own name for herself or that of her communities. Was Venus applied to her as a euphemism? Even a mocking joke?

RAN away the 26th instant, the following NEGROES, viz. Paris, Venus his wife, and three children, named Elsey, Luna, and James. Paris has an impediment in his speech; his wife, a likely sensible wench, about 25 years old, formerly belonged to Mrs. Murray. Any person delivering said negroes to the subscriber shall receive ten dollars; if they return home of their own accord they will be forgiven. JN°. HENDERSON. 29th Nov. 1781. [Georgia Royal Gazette]

Notice here that Venus is married to Paris. Was the enslaver was ‘playing’ with classical mythology in the match or the naming? Was Venus named Venus when in the control of Mrs. Murray? Their children break the pattern (with the possible exception of Luna). Did they get to name them themselves? To what degree would such a choice be controlled by the immediate enslaver? It is interesting ages of the children not given, but the strength of the family unit and desire to protect said children can be strongly inferred.

Broke out of the Trenton Gaol, on Monday night, the Fourth of this Instant October, a Negroe Wench, named Venus, formerly the Property of Samuel Stout, junior, in Amwell: Had on when she went away, a Lincey Jacket and Petticoat; she is likely to have round her Head two or three Handkerchiefs. Whoever takes up said Wench, or secures her so that she may be delivered to John Allen, High Sherrif at Trenton, or the Gaol Keeper, shall have Three Pounds Reward, and reasonable charges paid by me, John Allen, High Sherrif, N.B. All Masters of Vessels are forbid to carry her off at their Peril. [October 14, 1762; Pennsylvania Gazette]

I’ve nothing to say of the name but I am reminded that it was in Philadelphia that Ona Judge liberated herself from George Washington and I am at once again reminded of northern complacency and enforcement of enslavement. Here we have a state official acting to apprehend Venus.

Eight Dollars Reward. RUN-away on Sunday morning the 3d instant, a tall, stout negro wench and her child; the wench is named LUCY, the child VENUS. The wench is very much pitted with the small pox, and her feet is so large that she is obliged to ware mens shoes. She took with her two short gowns, and two petticoats, one striped bottom short gown and a yellow ground callicoe one; one black petticoat and one other supposed green, either of which she wears. The child had on a tow cloth frock, has a scar on her shoulder, and is about 5 or 6 years old. Her mother is about 28 years. Whoever gives information to the printer so as the owner may have them again, shall receive the above reward. All persons are forewarned not to conceal, harbour or carry off the said wench and her child, as they will have to answer for it at their peril. [August 18, 1783; The New-York Gazette; and the Weekly Mercury.]

Did Lucy name Venus? Why would she pick such a name? I can’t help cheering on this mother who sought to give her young daughter a better future and dared to take a change of clothes. Part of me wants to speculate that the mother wanted to protect her child from sexual violence, but now I’m straying from my stated methods.

RAN-AWAY on the 4th ultimo, a negro woman named Venus, formerly the property of Mrs. Berwicke, deceased. She is a stout likely young wench, of a very black complexion; she is well known in Charleston, and as she was enticed away by a wench named Liena, belonging to Mr. Rudly, near Hasel & Church street, it is supposed she is harbored by her. Whoever will deliver the said wench to Mr. Samuel Baker, No. 18, Tradd-street, or to the master of the work-house, or to the subscriber, on John’s Island, shall receive three pounds reward ; and a further reward of ten shillings if harbored by a black, and one pound if by a white person.Thomas Legare, jun. John’ s Island. [December 2, 1794; The City Gazette; St. George’s Dorchester, Charleston, South Carolina, US]

What does ‘likely’ imply here? Does this mean attractive? Was Venus friends with Liena? Was the flight inspired by Legare’s treatment upon her presumed recent acquisition upon the death of her former female enslaver?

RUN AWAY from the subscriber a Negro wench named Venus, about 26 years old, this is to warn all masters of vessels and others from harbouring or carrying off the said Wench, as they shall answer for it as the law directs. Whoever will apprehend the said Wench, shall be handsomely rewarded by bringing her to No. 27, Roosevelt Street. Charles Boardwi[ne]. [July 3, 1782; The Royal Gazette, NYC, NY]

How could there be any hope of recovery with so little detail, what was the motivation for posting the ad?

Ran away from me the Subscriber, on the 4th Day of May Instant, a Negro Girl named VENUS, in the 19th Year of her Age. All Persons are hereby cautioned and forbid against harbouring, concealing or employing said Negro, as they would avoid the Penalty of the Law. EPHRAIM FULLER.Middleton, May 28,1778. [June 11, 1778; New-England Chronicle, Boston, Mass.]

At least Venus had more than a month’s head start before this meager ad without specified reward was published.

Ten Dollars Reward. RAN-AWAY from the subscriber on the 22d ult. two negroes, viz. MARK, and VENUS his wife ; Mark, a fellow about five feet six or seven inches high, and about 22 or 23 years of age, has a blemish in one of his eyes and commonly keeps it shut when spoke to. He is very artful and sensible, and of a blackish complexion ; formerly the property of Gabriel Manigault, Esq. of Charleston. The fellow formerly lived near or at Goose-creek, and it may be supposed he will make for that place, as his relations are all living about there ; had on when he went away, a negro cloth coat and and oznaburgh overalls. Venus (Mark’s wife) a wench about the same age of himself, and of a yellowish complexion, about five feet two or three inches high, both of this country. A reward of six dollars will be given for Mark, and four for Venus, to any person or persons that will deliver them to the goal of Charleston, or Coosawhatchie, or to the subscriber on the Saltketcher. Andrew Zahler. August 6. [August 6, 1793; The City Gazette; St. George’s Dorchester, Charleston, South Carolina, US]

Here we see the presumption that the separation from family maybe the motivation for the disappearance. The focus is on Mark not Venus. She chose to leave with him even though there is not suggestion she was also enslaved by Manigault. Did she fear punishment for his escape? Did she genuinely love him? Both were born in this country and knew no life but enslavement. Venus knew she was likely her enslaver’s daughter or the product of white male sexual violence. Yet her enslaver values her 2 dollars less than her husband.

Ten Dollars Reward. RAN-AWAY from the Subscriber, the 22d July last, a NEGRO WENCH, named VENUS, of a yellowish complexion, lusty, well made and a bushy head of hair ; chief of her upper fore teeth are out; her clothes are mostly of homespun, one gown that is yellow striped. Whoever will deliver her to the Master of the Work House, or the Subscriber, on Orangeburgh Road, near the Cypress, shall receive the above Reward. ELYGERCRUM. October 20. [October 20, 1796; The City Gazette; St. George’s Dorchester, Charleston, South Carolina, US]

Why the three month delay in advertising? The missing front teeth speak to likely violence. No age is given. Again the mention of complexion speaks to mother’s trauma. What does lusty imply here? What about well made? Are these implying sexual desirability?

25 DOLLARS REWARD, RANAWAY from the Subscriber on the 25th Feb. last, a Negro Man by the Name of EPHRAIM, and his wife by the name of VENUS–EPHRAIM is about five feet high, thick sett, black complexion, has a large scar on his right foot, 38 years of age, and can read and write.–Venus is of a yellow complexion, thin visage and about 39 years of age.–I will give the above reward to any person that will secure them in any Jail in this state so that I get them again, and all reasonable expences paid, or fifteen Dollars for the fellow and ten for his wife. Masters of Vessels and all others are hereby forwarned from harbouring, employing, or carrying away said Slaves, under the penalty of the law. SAMUEL WILLIS. Swift Creek, March 7th, 1813. [March 13, 1813; Carolina Federal Republican; New Bern, North Carolina]

Note Ephraim’s literacy. These are one of the oldest couples thus far. Why now? Again we have price differential between husband and wife. Women just aren’t worth as much.

RUN AWAY from the subscriber’s plantation in Prince William’s parish, South Carolina, on the first of this month, the following NEGROES, viz. Will, Kitty; Liddy, about eight years old, Chance, Sabina; and Tom, about 18 months old; Pope, (a carpenter) and his daughter, three years old; John, Lucy, Venus, Granville, Monteith, Mahomedy, Philip, and Henny. As these Negroes formerly belonged to John Graham, Esq. it is more than probable they will attempt to conceal themselves on or near Savannah river. A reward of two dollars per head will be paid to any person who will lodge them in the Work-House at Savannah, or three dollars a head on their delivery at the plantation of the subscriber near Combahee. GODIN GUERARD May 8, 1785. [May 12, 1785; Gazette of the State of Georgia; Savannah]

16 left together. Sale even as family units was just too much. Three young children among them. The only other classical name in the group is Sabina.

ABSENTED himself from the Subscriber, on Saturday se’nnight, a NEGRO FELLOW, of a very black complexion, 6 feet high, stoops a little in his walk, about 25 years old, and formerly belonged to Dr. Kezelburgh. He had on a brown coat, green jacket lined with white, and blue trowsers, but may have changed his dress. He says he is free, and that his name is Venus, of New- York, and will probably try to get there : masters of vessels are therefore cautioned against carrying him off. If he returns of his own accord, he will be forgiven. Whoever will apprehend him, shall be handsomely rewarded. John D. Thomas, HAZELL-STREET. [Venus/Jack escaped again on May 10, 1796; see ad number 722.] [January 4, 1796; The City Gazette; St. George’s Dorchester, Charleston, South Carolina, US]

Who turned in Jack? Did he believe the lie of being forgiven and ended up with an iron around his neck?!

Twenty Dollars Reward, A NEGRO FELLOW named JACK, belonging to the Subscriber, was taken off Sullivan’s Island on the 1st instant; he is of a very black complexion, 6 feet high, stoops a little in his walk, about 28 years old ; and formerly belonged to doctor Kezelburgh; has a sore leg and an iron about his neck ; he had on when he was taken off, a blue jacket and trowsers, but may have changed his dress ; he says he is free, and calls himself Venus of New-York, and will probably try to get there. Whoever will take him up and deliver him to me on Sullivan’s Island, or to the master of the Work House in Charleston, shall receive the above Reward and all reasonable expences. Masters of vessels are cautioned against carrying him off the state. John David Thomas. May 10. [Venus/Jack’s earlier escape was advertised on January 4, 1796; see ad number 670.] [May 10, 1796; The City Gazette; St. George’s Dorchester, Charleston, South Carolina, US]

A man who knows his name an rejects the one he is given. I’m curious about other attestations of Venus as a male name.

RUN AWAY, FROM the Subscriber, on the 27th of March last, in Robeson County, Two NEGROES, a Man and a Woman. The Fellow is betwixt 25 and 30 Years of Age, named Cato, and a handsome Negro, the inside of one of his Ancles[sic] has been cut with an axe, which occasions him to walk a little lamely. The Woman is betwixt 35 and 40, named Venus, a low Wench and a Complete Cook. Whoever shall apprehend the said Negroes, and lodge them in any Goal, and give Notice to the Subscriber, shall be paid Ten Dollars Reward, or Five Dollars for either of them. ARCH. M’NEILL. April 15. [April 18, 1803; Raleigh Register And North Carolina Weekly Advertiser]

What does low mean? The classical tastes of the enslaver seem also reflected in the name Cato.

RAN away on or about the 20th of June, 1779, from the subscriber, on Edisto Island, the following Negroes, viz. Titus, Sampson, Prince, Isaac, Marquis, John, Taass, Cyrus, Hercules, Quamina, Sarah, Venus, Hagar, Rose, Cudjoe, Jethro, Abraham, London, Jack, Sam, Harry, Bristol, Caesar,Polydore, Stephen, Lymus, Bob, Amey, Catherina, Doll, Sabrina, Dido, Sarah, Maria, Phoebe, and Jenny. Whoever takes up any of the said Negroes, and delivers them to Mr. David Duncan in Savannah, the Warden of the Workhouse in Charlestown, or the subscriber on South Edisto Island, shall receive a reward of Three Guineas for each, with every reasonable expence; and a like reward will be paid on such information being given as will convict any person harbouring any of the said Negroes. BENJAMIN EDINGS. N.B. Any of the above Negroes returning home of their own accord will be forgiven. [January 25, 1781; Georgia Royal Gazette; Savannah]

You can just hear the desperation of this enslaver who lost in one act of self liberation 35 captives. It is incredible to me that he would think they would voluntarily return after 18 months of liberation. What this large group does is give us an idea of name variation under this enslaver’s judgement:

(9) Classical: Titus, Cyrus, Hercules, Venus, Phoebe, Caesar, Polydore, Dido, Sabrina

(8) Biblical: Sampson, Isaac, Sarah, Jethro, Abraham, Hagar, John, Maria

(6) Anglophone ‘nick names’: Jack, Sam, Harry, Bob, Amey, and Jenny

(4) Potentially African: Taass, Quamina, Cudjoe, Lymus

(4) Other Objects/Titles: Doll, Prince, Marquis, Rose

(2) Other European names: Catherina, Stephen

(2)Place names: Bristol, London

RUN AWAY from the subscriber, THREE NEGROES, viz. Carolina, a short well made fellow, much pitted with the smallpox, about 25 years of age, is well known in this and the province of South Carolina, had on when he went away a blue negroe cloth coat with white metal buttons, and purple pair of breeches with silver buttons. Venus, a wench about 5 feet 6 inches high, about 35 years of age, has her fore teeth filed. And Nanny, a girl about 12 years of age, born in this province. They had both on blue negroe cloth habits; and all speak very good English. Any person that will deliver the said negroes to the Warden of the Work House shall receive a reward of Ten Shillings each, and all reasonable Charges; and whoever will discover any person or persons who shall harbour or entertain the said negroes, or any of them, such person shall, upon conviction of the offender, receive a reward of Forty Shillings if a white person, and Twenty Shillings if a slave. And as perhaps some ill disposed person may intend the carrying the said slaves off this province, they will do well to consider that such offence is, by the laws of this province, felony without benefit of clergy, and they may be assured that whoever shall so offend will be prosecuted with the utmost rigour of the law. CHARLES PRYCE. 12th January, 1768. [January 20, 1768; Georgia Gazette; Savannah]

Were Carolina and Venus borne abroad and survived the passage? This seems the implication of Nanny being said to be borne ‘in this province’. How did they learn their English? Why are Venus’ teeth filed? Was this a pre enslavement body modification?

RUN AWAY, From Mrs. Elbert’s plantation, on Argyle Island, Monday last, The following Negroes, viz. CHARLES, of a yellow complexion, from the Angola country, about 5 feet 4 inches high, speaks a little broken English, about 25 years of age. BREETCHIE, about 6 feet high, stout made, speaks good English, from the Ebo country, about 30 years of age, of a yellow complexion. VENUS, his wife, about the same age, and from the same country, of a deep black complexion. PEGGY, Charles wife, of a black complexion, about 25 years of age, of the Angola country. Its supposed they are gone towards Augusta. Whoever will apprehend them shall be handsomely rewarded, on their delivery to Speirs, Macleod, and Co. at Savannah, or to Mrs. Elbert, at White Oak plantation, on Ogechee. Savannah, February 4, 1790.

Here we show enslaver knowledge of original cultural origin of those he enslaves. I’m confused by the meaning of yellow complexion. I’d been taking it to mean biracial but these make me wonder.

TEN DOLLARS REWARD. RAN away from the Subscriber, last Night, a Negro Man, named FREEMAN, about 38 Years of Age, about 5 Feet 6 Inches high, stout and well made; had on a dark great Coat, with Horn Buttons, a grey Kersey Jacket, and took with him a Variety of other Cloathing.—Also a Negro Wench, his Wife, named VENUS, about 32 Years of Age, tall and likely; took with her a red short Cloak, a black Bonnet, a Cloth coloured Worsted Gown, and Plenty of other Cloathing. Whoever will take up and return said NEGROES to their Master, shall have TEN DOLLARS Reward, and all reasonable Charges, paid by SAMUEL TOMKINS. Cranston, Oct. 24,1783. Reprint: The Providence Gazette, 11-01-1783.

I find naming an enslaved person Freeman pretty awful. Glad they took more Clothes.

This was a long post. I wanted to stop. I almost did. But I really wanted to see Venus a little clearer. I wanted to know as much of their stories as I can and celebrate their radical actions to honor their own humanity and that of their fellow enslaved.